A spatial typology of energy (in)efficiency in the private rental sector in England and Wales using Energy Performance Certificates
Caitlin Robinson; Ed Atkins; Tom Cantellow; Meixu Chen; Lenka Hasova; Alex Singleton (2025). Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 52(9), 2316-2325. DOI: 10.1177/23998083251377128
Abstract
Like many countries globally, the private rental sector in England and Wales contains some of the lowest quality and energy inefficient properties, despite being home to some of the most vulnerable households. We present a new data product that classifies small areas based on the energy (in)efficiency characteristics of private rental properties. Newly available Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) data enables us to analyse detailed energy and housing characteristics for 3.9 million private rentals (∼78.8% of total sector), the most comprehensive dataset of its kind, using k-means clustering. Demographic datasets allow us to explore wider socio-spatial inequalities, and uncertainties associated with granular – but at-times incomplete – EPC data. The classification can be used to evidence how inefficiency is spatially concentrated and fragmented, with a diverse range of energy and housing conditions shaping the everyday lives of tenants.
Extended Summary
This research develops a comprehensive neighbourhood classification system to map energy efficiency patterns in England and Wales’ private rental sector. The study analysed Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) data for 3.9 million private rental properties—representing approximately 78.8% of the entire sector—to create the most detailed dataset of its kind. Using k-means clustering techniques, the research aggregated property-level data to Output Areas (small geographical units containing 40-250 households) to overcome data gaps and create a robust analytical framework. The methodology examined key efficiency variables including property age, construction type, heating systems, wall insulation quality, and access to mains gas connections. Nine distinct clusters emerged from the analysis, revealing the spatial complexity of energy inefficiency across different urban and rural contexts. Three clusters demonstrated high average efficiency but low private rental concentrations, whilst others highlighted significant challenges. The ‘Dense electrified efficiency’ cluster, though smallest, showed the highest proportion of private rentals but relied on expensive electricity rather than gas heating. ‘Remote intense inefficiency’ areas contained the highest concentrations of properties rated F or below, typically comprising off-gas houses built before 1900. Urban areas displayed particular challenges, with clusters like ‘Older intensely inefficient pockets’ concentrated in cities and coastal communities, characterised by high numbers of pre-1900 terraced houses rated D or below. The research revealed that 5.5% of Output Areas (8,319 locations) belonged to the three most inefficient clusters, representing priority areas for targeted intervention. Demographic analysis showed distinct socio-spatial inequalities, with Dense electrified efficiency areas housing younger professionals and students, whilst Remote intense inefficiency and Diverse efficient pockets contained the most economically inactive populations. The classification contradicts ‘one-size-fits-all’ policy approaches, demonstrating how energy inefficiency varies dramatically across geographical contexts—from young renters lacking access to affordable gas heating in redeveloped urban areas, to rural communities struggling with expensive heating in old, poorly insulated properties. This spatial typology provides essential evidence for policymakers developing targeted interventions to address energy poverty whilst meeting climate change objectives, highlighting the need for both place-based retrofit programmes and universal approaches to tackle systematic inefficiency across England and Wales’ private rental sector.
Key Findings
- Analysis of 3.9 million private rental properties revealed nine distinct energy efficiency clusters across England and Wales using comprehensive EPC data.
- 5.5% of neighbourhoods belong to the three most energy inefficient clusters, representing priority areas for targeted policy intervention.
- Dense urban areas often rely on expensive electricity heating whilst rural properties struggle with poor insulation and off-gas heating systems.
- Energy inefficiency patterns vary dramatically by location, contradicting uniform policy approaches and requiring spatially targeted interventions.
- Socio-demographic analysis reveals energy vulnerable communities are disproportionately concentrated in the least efficient private rental properties.
Citation
@article{robinson2025spatial,
author = {Caitlin Robinson; Ed Atkins; Tom Cantellow; Meixu Chen; Lenka Hasova; Alex Singleton},
title = {A spatial typology of energy (in)efficiency in the private rental sector in England and Wales using Energy Performance Certificates},
journal = {Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science},
year = {2025},
volume = {52(9)},
pages = {2316-2325},
doi = {10.1177/23998083251377128}
}